Breaking Barriers: The Fight Against Discrimination Among Indonesian Muslim Minority in America
Main Article Content
Keywords
Discrimination, Indonesian Muslim Minority, America, Phenomenological Analysis, Coping Strategies.
Abstract
Discrimination against minority groups based on race, religion, and other characteristics has a long-standing history in the United States. This study explores how Indonesian Muslims in major urban areas across the US confront and resist discrimination. Through phenomenological analysis, data were gathered from 16 Indonesian participants residing in eight different states. The findings reveal that Indonesian Muslims employ strategies such as staying calm, exercising self-control, seeking clarification, speaking up, and reporting incidents to authorities to combat discrimination. These coping mechanisms reflect the complexity of discrimination faced by this minority group and underscore the need for robust legal frameworks and collaborative efforts to promote tolerance and respect for diversity. The study offers valuable insights for activists, religious leaders, legal advocates, and academics working to foster an inclusive society. It also emphasizes the necessity for further research, particularly with larger and more diverse samples, to understand the long-term impacts and to develop targeted interventions that support Indonesian Muslims and other minority groups in the US.
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References
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Tummala-Narra, Pratyusha, Margarita Alegria, and Chih-Nan Chen. “Perceived Discrimination, Acculturative Stress, and Depression Among South Asians: Mixed Findings.” Asian American Journal of Psychology 3, no. 1, 2012.
Williams, David R. Spencer, Michael S. Jackson, James S. “Race, Stress, and Physical Health: The Role of Group Identity.” In Contrada, Richard J. and Richard D. Ashmore (Eds.), Self, Social Identity and Physical Health: Interdisciplinary Explorations, 71–100. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Williams, David, and Chiquita Collins. “Racial Residential Segregation: A Fundamental Cause of Racial Disparities in Health.” Public Health Reports 116, 2001.
Banks, Kira Hudson, Laura P Kohn-Wood, and Michael Spencer. “An examination of the African American experience of everyday discrimination and symptoms of psychological distress.” Community Mental Health Journal 42, no.6, 2006.
Barnes, Jessica S., and Claudette Bennett E. “Census 2000 Brief: The Asian Population: 2000.” Census.gov, US. Department of Commerce, 2002.
Bhangal, Naseeb & Oiyan Poon. “Are Asian Americans White? Or People of Color?” Yes! Magazine, January 15, 2020.
Blumenfeld, Waren. Homophobia: How We All Pay the Price. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1992.
Bond, Laurence, France McGinnity, and Hellen Russell. "Introduction: Making Equality Count." In Making Equality Count: Irish and International Research Measuring Equality and Discrimination, Laurence Bond, France McGinnity, and Hellen Russell (Eds.), 1-19. Dublin: The Liffey Press, 2010.
Clark, Rodney, Norman B. Anderson, Vernessa R. Clark, and David R. Williams. "Racism as a Stressor for African Americans: A Biopsychosocial Model." American Psychologist 54, no. 10, 1999.
D’Emilio, John. Basters, Baiters, and Bigots: Homophobia in American Society. New York, NY: Harrington Press, 1985.
Dicter, Avi., and Daniel L. Byman. Israel’s Lessons For Fighting Terrorists And Their Implications For The United States. Washington, DC: The Saban Center At The Brookings Institution, 2006.
Elia, John P. “Homophobia in the High School: A Problem in Need of a Resolution.” The High School Journal 77, no. ½, 1993.
Englander, Magnus. “The Interview: Data Collection in Descriptive Phenomenological Human Scientific Research.” Journal of Phenomenological Psychology 43, no. 1 2012.
Fischer, Colin. Researching and Writing a Dissertation: A Guidebook for Business Students. Essex: Prentice Hall, 2007.
Flores, Yvette G. Chicana and Chicano Mental Health: Alma, Mente y Corazón. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 2013.
Garfinkel, Harold. Studies in Ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967.
Harrell, Shelly. A multidimensional conceptualization of racism‐related stress: Implications for the well‐being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 70, no.1, 2000.
Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, and National Public Radio (NPR) (2017). Discrimination in America: Experiences and Views. Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. Accessed February 3, 2024.
Hickson, Mark and Brennan Hickson. “The Qualitative Method in Communication Research.” In Don W. Stacks, Michael B. Salwen, Kristen C. Eichhorn (Eds.). An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research (3rd ed.), (New York, NY: Routledge, 2019.
Huynh, Que Lam, Thierry Devos, and Laura Smalarz. “Perpetual foreigner in one’s own land: Potential implications for identity and psychological adjustment.” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 30, no. 2, 2011.
Khan, Mariam, Misja Ilcisin, and Katherine Saxton. “Multifactorial Discrimination as a Fundamental Cause of Mental Health Inequities.” International Journal for Equity in Health 16, no. 1, 2017.
Kira, Ibrahim, Linda Lewandowski, Thomas Templin, Vidya Ramaswamy, Bulent Ozkan, and Jamal Mohanesh. “The Effects of Perceived Discrimination and Backlash on Iraqi Refugees’ Mental and Physical Health.” Journal of Muslim Mental Health 5, no. 1, 2010.
Mogahed, Dalia, and Erum Ikramullah. “American Muslim Poll 2020: Amid Pandemic and Protest.” ISPU, 2020. https://www.ispu.org/american-muslim-poll-2020-amid-pandemic-and-protest/.
Morrow, Susan L., and Mary Lee Smith. “Qualitative Research for Counseling Psychology.” In Handbook of Counseling Psychology, Steven Brown and Robert Lent (Eds.), 3rd ed., 199-230. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2000.
Mossakowski, Krysia N., and Wei Zhang. “Does Social Support Buffer the Stress of Discrimination and Reduce Psychological Distress Among Asian Americans?” Social Psychology Quarterly 77, no. 3, 2014.
Murray, Stuart, and Dave Holmes. “Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) and the Ethics of Body and Place: Critical Methodological Reflections.” Human Studies 37, no. 1, 2014.
Nightingale, Carl Husemoller. On the Edge: A History of Poor Black Children and Their American Dreams. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1994.
Patton, Michael Quinn. Qualitative Evaluation Methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980.
Pew Research Center. “Sharp Rise in the Share of Americans Saying Jews Face Discrimination.” Pew Research Center, 2019.
Pieterse, Alex L., Nathan R. Todd, Helen A. Neville, and Robert T. Carter. “Perceived Racism and Mental Health Among Black American Adults: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 59, no. 1, 2012.
Richman, Laura, Laura Kohn-Wood, and David R. Williams. “The Role of Discrimination and Racial Identity for Mental Health Service Utilization.” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 26, no. 8, 2007.
Rippy, Alyssa, and Elana Newman. “Adaptation of a Scale of Race-Related Stress for Use with Muslim Americans.” Journal of Muslim Mental Health 3, no. 1, 2008.
Rubin, Hubert, and Irene Rubin. Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005.
Russell, Hellen., Frances McGinnity, Emma Quinn, and Rebecca King O’Riain. “The Experience of Discrimination in Ireland: Evidence from Self‐Report Data.” In Making Equality Count: Irish and International Research Measuring Equality and Discrimination, 20-47. Dublin: Liffey Press, 2010.
Salama, Nadiatus, and Nobuyuki Chikudate. “Religious Influences on the Rationalization of Corporate Bribery in Indonesia: A Phenomenological Study.” Asian Journal of Business Ethics 10, no. 1, 2021.
Savenye, Wilhelmina, and Rhonda S. Robinson. “Qualitative research issues and methods: An introduction for educational technologists.” In Jonassen, David (Ed.) Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology 1171–1195. New York: Routledge, 1996.
Spiegelberg, Herbert. Doing Phenomenology: Essays on and in Phenomenology. The Hague: Martinus Nijhof, 1975.
Sue, Stanley, Derald W. Sue, Leslie Sue, and David Takeuchi. “Psychopathology Among Asian Americans: A Model Minority?” Cultural Diversity and Mental Health 1 1995.
Tempo. “Memanfaatkan Diaspora Indonesia.” Accessed December 2, 2022. https://kolom.tempo.co/read/1002435/memanfaatkan-diaspora-indonesia.
Tummala-Narra, Pratyusha, Margarita Alegria, and Chih-Nan Chen. “Perceived Discrimination, Acculturative Stress, and Depression Among South Asians: Mixed Findings.” Asian American Journal of Psychology 3, no. 1, 2012.
Williams, David R. Spencer, Michael S. Jackson, James S. “Race, Stress, and Physical Health: The Role of Group Identity.” In Contrada, Richard J. and Richard D. Ashmore (Eds.), Self, Social Identity and Physical Health: Interdisciplinary Explorations, 71–100. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Williams, David, and Chiquita Collins. “Racial Residential Segregation: A Fundamental Cause of Racial Disparities in Health.” Public Health Reports 116, 2001.
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Sep 18, 2024
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