FRAMING HAMAS: A COMPARATIVE DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF WESTERN AND MIDDLE EASTERN MEDIA
Main Article Content
Keywords
Hamas, media framing, Middle Eastern media, NVivo 12 Plus, Western media
Abstract
After the 9/11 attacks, Western society, especially the United States, began to consider Islam as a religion that gave birth to terrorist organizations. Many media also brand organizations related to the Islamic religion as terrorists, including Hamas. In order to emphasize the intricate relationships between media, geopolitics, and the formation of public opinion, this research seeks to analyze potential biases and contrasting narratives between Western and Middle Eastern opinions on Hamas. In order to examine depictions of Hamas as a "hero," "terrorist," "cruel," and exhibiting "humane" treatment towards civilians and hostages, this study used NVivo 12 Plus to analyze 150 news stories, 75 of which came from Middle Eastern (Al-Jazeera, Al-Arabiya, Asharq Al-Awsat) and 75 from Western (BBC, CNN, The Guardian) media sources. The findings indicate that Western media typically adopts a more solemn narratives, emphasizing Hamas-related conflict and violence. However, the narrative from Middle Eastern media emphasizing Hamas-related themes of resistance and heroism. This research can assist journalists and media organizations recognize potential biases and differing narratives in their coverage of Hamas and related subjects.
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References
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Chong, D., & Druckman, J. N. (2007). Framing Theory. Annual Review Of Political Science, 10, 103–126. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.10.072805.103054
Clarke, C. P. (2019). After The Caliphate: The Islamic State & The Future Terrorist Diaspora. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Polity Press.
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El-Nawawy, M., & Elmasry, M. H. (2022). Normalizing Normalization: Emirati And Israeli Newspaper Framing Of The Israel – Palestine Conflict Before And After The Abraham Accords. International Journal Of Communication, 16, 1869–1892.
Entman, R. M. (2007). Framing Bias: Media In The Distribution Of Power. Journal Of Communication, 57(1), 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00336.x
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Gamson, A. W., & Modigliani, A. (1989). Media Discourse And Public Opinion On Nuclear Power. American Journal Of Sociology, 95(1), 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1086/229213
Gradstein, L. (2024). Explainer: How Hamas Ended Up On US List Of Terrorist Groups. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from VOA website: https://www.voanews.com/a/explainer-how-hamas-ended-up-on-us-list-of-terrorist-groups/7478227.html
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Hawaleshka, D. (2023). History Illustrated: The Story Of Hamas And Its Fight For Palestine. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from Al-Jazeera website: https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2023/10/11/history-illustrated-the-story-of-hamas-and-its-fight-for-palestine
House, W. (2023). Remarks By President Biden On The October 7 Terrorist Attacks And The Resilience Of The State Of Israel And Its People. Tel Aviv: White House. Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2023/10/18/remarks-by-president-biden-on-the-october-7th-terrorist-attacks-and-the-resilience-of-the-state-of-israel-and-its-people-tel-aviv-israel/#:~:text=I come to Israel with,left a deep%2C dee
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Jetter, M. (2019). The Inadvertent Consequences Of Al-Qaeda News Coverage. European Economic Review, 119(2019), 391–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2019.08.004
Karakaya, M. (2021). Hamas And The United States: Conflicting Visions And Policies In Palestine From 1987 To 2020. Thesis Master (Unpublished).
Karamah, S. (2023). Sheikh Jarrah Issue In The Context Of The Palestinian Resistance Against The Israeli Occupation: A Game Changer. Journal Of Islamic Jerusalem Studies, 23(2), 213–238. https://doi.org/10.31456/beytulmakdis.1353928
Kear, M. (2022). Questioning The Moderation Dichotomy: Understanding Hamas's Evolving Moderation. Democratization, 29(8), 1416–1435. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2022.2065260
Khan, M. H., Adnan, H. M., Kaur, S., Khuhro, R. A., Asghar, R., & Jabeen, S. (2019). Muslims' Representation In Donald Trump's Anti-Muslim-Islam Statement: A Critical Discourse Analysis. Religions, 10(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10020115
Kinery, E. (2023). Biden Heads To Israel With Middle East On Edge After Hamas Attack. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from CNBC website: https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/17/biden-heads-to-israel-jordan-after-hamas-attack.html#:~:text=Biden heads to Israel with Middle East on edge after Hamas attack,-Published Tue%2C Oct&text=President Joe Biden will travel,for humanitarian aid for Gazans.
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Lecheler, S., & de Vreese, C. H. (2019). News Framing Effects. Milton Park, Abingdon-on-Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom: Routledge, Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315208077-3
Levitt, M. (2007). A Review Of: "Matthew Levitt. Hamas: Politics, Charity, And Terrorism In The Service Of Jihad.". Terrorism And Political Violence, 19, 152–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550601141555
Margolin, D. (2022). #Hamas: A Thematic Exploration Of Hamas's English-Language Twitter. Terrorism And Political Violence, 34(6), 1076–1101. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2020.1761343
McCombs, M., & Valenzuela, S. (2007). The Agenda-Setting Theory. Cuadernos De Información, 20, 44–50. https://doi.org/10.7764/cdi.20.111
Nelson, T. E., Oxley, Z. M., & Clawson, R. A. (1997). Toward A Psychology Of Framing Effects. Political Behavior, 19(3), 221–246. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024834831093
Pan, Z., & Kosicki, G. M. (1993). Framing Analysis: An Approach To News Discourse. Political Communication, 10(1), 55–75.
Paterson, J. (2024). Al-Qaeda As A Spatial Orientated Movement: Interactions Between Transnational And Local Jihadism. Small Wars And Insurgencies, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2024.2314653
Peace, W. W. &. (2019). What You Need To Know About The 1987 Intifada. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from PBS website: https://www.pbs.org/wnet/women-war-and-peace/uncategorized/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-1987-intifada/#:~:text=The First Intifada was a,and occasionally firearms) on Israelis.
Pew Research Center. (2023). Americans' Views Of the Israel-Hamas War. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from Pew Research Center website: https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2023/12/08/americans-views-of-the-israel-hamas-war/
Reals, T., & D’Agata, C. (2023). Why Did Hamas Attack Israel, And Why Now? Retrieved January 24, 2024, from CBS News website: https://www.cbsnews.com/news/why-did-hamas-attack-israel-and-why-now/
Ridouani, D. (2011). The Representation Of Arabs And Muslims In Western Media. RUTA: Revista Universitària De Treballs Acadèmics, (3), 7–15.
Sahide, A. (2022). Donald Trump, Dunia Islam, Dan Legitimasi Politiknya. In A. Sahide (Ed.), Donald Trump Dan Tatanan Politik Global (pp. 33–54). Yogyakarta: UMY Press.
Shahab, S. (2022). Islam, Jihad And Terrorism In Post-9/11: A Comparison Of Western And Islamic Norms. Journal Of The Research Society Of Pakistan, 59(2), 24–32.
Singh, N. (1978). Effect Of Cannabinol On Human Behaviour. Indian Journal Of Physiology And Pharmacology, 22(2), 176–177. https://doi.org/10.25215/0703.058
Suwarno, S., & Sahayu, W. (2020). Palestine And Israel Representation In The National And International News Media: A Critical Discourse Study. Jurnal Humaniora, 32(3), 217–225. https://doi.org/10.22146/jh.52911
Taha, Y. A., & Al-Khanji, R. (2020). A Critical Discourse Analysis Of Gaza Marches Of Return Coverage In Selected Newspapers. International Journal Of Linguistics, 12(6), 163–179. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v12i6.17959
Tapper, J., & Appleton, K. (2023). Israel Investigates Sexual Violence Committed By Hamas As Part Of October 7 Horror. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from CNN News website: https://edition.cnn.com/2023/11/17/world/israel-investigates-sexual-violence-hamas/index.html
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Uras, U., Gadzo, M., Humaid, M., Shankar, P., Hatuqa, D., Stepansky, J., & Siddiqui, U. (2023). Israel-Palestine Escalation Updates: Gaza Under Bombardment. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from Al-Jazeera website: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2023/10/7/israel-palestine-escalation-live-news-barrage-of-rockets-fired-from-gaza
Wu, H. (2023). Framing As A Concept: A Literature Review On Its Development, And Application With The Example Of Content Analysis. Interdisciplinary Humanities And Communication Studies, 1(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.61173/55x0eq94
Al-Jazeera. (2023). Israeli Forces Attack Palestinian Worshippers At Al-Aqsa Mosque. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from Al-Jazeera website: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/17/israeli-forces-attack-palestinian-worshippers-at-al-aqsa-mosque
Alashqar, M. M., Rahim, A. A., & Aziz, A. S. A. (2023). War Crimes In Gaza Strip From Year 2008-2021: Individual Criminal Responsibility Under The Legal Framework Of Rome Statute Of The International Criminal Court. Journal Of International Studies, 19(1), 61–93. https://doi.org/10.32890/jis2023.19.1.3
Ali, B., & Senouci, F. M. (2021). The Muslim Ban: The Way To Trumping Up Islamophobia. The Algerian Journal Of Political Studies, 8(1), 694–714.
Alsoos, I. (2021). What Explains The Resilience Of Muslim Brotherhood Movements? An Analysis Of Hamas' Organizing Strategies. Mediterranean Politics, 28(2), 278–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/13629395.2021.1904368
Asharq Al-Awsat. (2023). Heavy Fighting In Gaza Halts Most Aid Delivery, Leaves Civilians With Few Places To Seek Safety. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from Asharq Al-Awsat website: https://english.aawsat.com/arab-world/4711511-heavy-fighting-gaza-halts-most-aid-delivery-leaves-civilians-few-places-seek
Attique, S., Zaman, U., Bukhari, H., Ali, T., & Ali, H. (2019). Islamophobia In The West And Post 9/11 Era. International Affairs And Global Strategy, 78, 23–32. https://doi.org/10.7176/iags/78-04
BBC News. (2023). Hamas Hostages:' The Terrorists Have Her And Her Babies. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from BBC News website: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-67064742
Burke, J. (2023). A Deadly Cascade : How Secret Hamas Attack Orders Were Passed Down At Last Minute. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from The Guardian website: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/nov/07/secret-hamas-attack-orders-israel-gaza-7-october
Chong, D., & Druckman, J. N. (2007). Framing Theory. Annual Review Of Political Science, 10, 103–126. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.10.072805.103054
Clarke, C. P. (2019). After The Caliphate: The Islamic State & The Future Terrorist Diaspora. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Polity Press.
Cohen, R. S. (2023). The West's Incoherent Critique Of Israel's Gaza Strategy. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from RAND Coorporation website: https://www.rand.org/pubs/commentary/2023/11/the-wests-incoherent-critique-of-israels-gaza-strategy.html
Diakonia. (2023). 2023 Hostilities And Escalating Violence In The Opt | Factual Account Of Events. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from Diakonia \ International Humanitarian Law Centre website: https://www.diakonia.se/ihl/news/2023-hostilities-in-gaza-and-israel-factual-account-of-events/
El-Nawawy, M., & Elmasry, M. H. (2022). Normalizing Normalization: Emirati And Israeli Newspaper Framing Of The Israel – Palestine Conflict Before And After The Abraham Accords. International Journal Of Communication, 16, 1869–1892.
Entman, R. M. (2007). Framing Bias: Media In The Distribution Of Power. Journal Of Communication, 57(1), 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00336.x
Entman, R. N. (1993). Framing: Toward Clarification Of A Fractured Paradigm. Journal Of Communication, 43(4), 51–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x
Fenton-Harvey, J. (2023). Britain Follows The US Into Isolation Over Israel's Gaza War. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from The New Arab website: https://www.newarab.com/analysis/britain-follows-us-isolation-over-israels-gaza-war
Gamson, A. W., & Modigliani, A. (1989). Media Discourse And Public Opinion On Nuclear Power. American Journal Of Sociology, 95(1), 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1086/229213
Gradstein, L. (2024). Explainer: How Hamas Ended Up On US List Of Terrorist Groups. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from VOA website: https://www.voanews.com/a/explainer-how-hamas-ended-up-on-us-list-of-terrorist-groups/7478227.html
Hashmi, A. M. (2020). Islam, Prejudiced Western Fiction And Islamic Feminism. Asian Journal Of Multidisciplinary Studies, 8(12), 10–14.
Hawaleshka, D. (2023). History Illustrated: The Story Of Hamas And Its Fight For Palestine. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from Al-Jazeera website: https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2023/10/11/history-illustrated-the-story-of-hamas-and-its-fight-for-palestine
House, W. (2023). Remarks By President Biden On The October 7 Terrorist Attacks And The Resilience Of The State Of Israel And Its People. Tel Aviv: White House. Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2023/10/18/remarks-by-president-biden-on-the-october-7th-terrorist-attacks-and-the-resilience-of-the-state-of-israel-and-its-people-tel-aviv-israel/#:~:text=I come to Israel with,left a deep%2C dee
IDF. (2023). What Happened In The October 7 Massacre? Retrieved January 24, 2024, from Israeli Defense Force website: https://govextra.gov.il/mda/october-7/october-7/what-happened-on-the-7th-of-october/
Itsojt. (2021a). Memandang Akhir Dari Konflik Palestina-Israel (Bagian 1). Retrieved January 24, 2024, from ITS website: https://www.its.ac.id/news/2021/09/16/memandang-akhir-dari-konflik-palestina-israel-bagian-1/
Itsojt. (2021b). Memandang Akhir Dari Konflik Palestina-Israel (Bagian 2). Retrieved January 24, 2024, from ITS website: https://www.its.ac.id/news/2021/09/16/memandang-akhir-dari-konflik-palestina-israel-bagian-2/
Jetter, M. (2019). The Inadvertent Consequences Of Al-Qaeda News Coverage. European Economic Review, 119(2019), 391–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2019.08.004
Karakaya, M. (2021). Hamas And The United States: Conflicting Visions And Policies In Palestine From 1987 To 2020. Thesis Master (Unpublished).
Karamah, S. (2023). Sheikh Jarrah Issue In The Context Of The Palestinian Resistance Against The Israeli Occupation: A Game Changer. Journal Of Islamic Jerusalem Studies, 23(2), 213–238. https://doi.org/10.31456/beytulmakdis.1353928
Kear, M. (2022). Questioning The Moderation Dichotomy: Understanding Hamas's Evolving Moderation. Democratization, 29(8), 1416–1435. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2022.2065260
Khan, M. H., Adnan, H. M., Kaur, S., Khuhro, R. A., Asghar, R., & Jabeen, S. (2019). Muslims' Representation In Donald Trump's Anti-Muslim-Islam Statement: A Critical Discourse Analysis. Religions, 10(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10020115
Kinery, E. (2023). Biden Heads To Israel With Middle East On Edge After Hamas Attack. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from CNBC website: https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/17/biden-heads-to-israel-jordan-after-hamas-attack.html#:~:text=Biden heads to Israel with Middle East on edge after Hamas attack,-Published Tue%2C Oct&text=President Joe Biden will travel,for humanitarian aid for Gazans.
Lahoud, N. (2022). The Bin Laden Papers: How The Abbottabad Raid Revealed The Truth About Al-Qaeda, Its Leader And His Family. New Haven, Connecticut, U.S: Yale University Press.
Lecheler, S., & de Vreese, C. H. (2019). News Framing Effects. Milton Park, Abingdon-on-Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom: Routledge, Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315208077-3
Levitt, M. (2007). A Review Of: "Matthew Levitt. Hamas: Politics, Charity, And Terrorism In The Service Of Jihad.". Terrorism And Political Violence, 19, 152–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550601141555
Margolin, D. (2022). #Hamas: A Thematic Exploration Of Hamas's English-Language Twitter. Terrorism And Political Violence, 34(6), 1076–1101. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2020.1761343
McCombs, M., & Valenzuela, S. (2007). The Agenda-Setting Theory. Cuadernos De Información, 20, 44–50. https://doi.org/10.7764/cdi.20.111
Nelson, T. E., Oxley, Z. M., & Clawson, R. A. (1997). Toward A Psychology Of Framing Effects. Political Behavior, 19(3), 221–246. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024834831093
Pan, Z., & Kosicki, G. M. (1993). Framing Analysis: An Approach To News Discourse. Political Communication, 10(1), 55–75.
Paterson, J. (2024). Al-Qaeda As A Spatial Orientated Movement: Interactions Between Transnational And Local Jihadism. Small Wars And Insurgencies, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2024.2314653
Peace, W. W. &. (2019). What You Need To Know About The 1987 Intifada. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from PBS website: https://www.pbs.org/wnet/women-war-and-peace/uncategorized/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-1987-intifada/#:~:text=The First Intifada was a,and occasionally firearms) on Israelis.
Pew Research Center. (2023). Americans' Views Of the Israel-Hamas War. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from Pew Research Center website: https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2023/12/08/americans-views-of-the-israel-hamas-war/
Reals, T., & D’Agata, C. (2023). Why Did Hamas Attack Israel, And Why Now? Retrieved January 24, 2024, from CBS News website: https://www.cbsnews.com/news/why-did-hamas-attack-israel-and-why-now/
Ridouani, D. (2011). The Representation Of Arabs And Muslims In Western Media. RUTA: Revista Universitària De Treballs Acadèmics, (3), 7–15.
Sahide, A. (2022). Donald Trump, Dunia Islam, Dan Legitimasi Politiknya. In A. Sahide (Ed.), Donald Trump Dan Tatanan Politik Global (pp. 33–54). Yogyakarta: UMY Press.
Shahab, S. (2022). Islam, Jihad And Terrorism In Post-9/11: A Comparison Of Western And Islamic Norms. Journal Of The Research Society Of Pakistan, 59(2), 24–32.
Singh, N. (1978). Effect Of Cannabinol On Human Behaviour. Indian Journal Of Physiology And Pharmacology, 22(2), 176–177. https://doi.org/10.25215/0703.058
Suwarno, S., & Sahayu, W. (2020). Palestine And Israel Representation In The National And International News Media: A Critical Discourse Study. Jurnal Humaniora, 32(3), 217–225. https://doi.org/10.22146/jh.52911
Taha, Y. A., & Al-Khanji, R. (2020). A Critical Discourse Analysis Of Gaza Marches Of Return Coverage In Selected Newspapers. International Journal Of Linguistics, 12(6), 163–179. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v12i6.17959
Tapper, J., & Appleton, K. (2023). Israel Investigates Sexual Violence Committed By Hamas As Part Of October 7 Horror. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from CNN News website: https://edition.cnn.com/2023/11/17/world/israel-investigates-sexual-violence-hamas/index.html
U.S. Department. (2023). Department Press Briefing – October 30, 2023. Retrieved January 20, 2024, from U.S. Department website: https://www.state.gov/briefings/department-press-briefing-october-30-2023/
Uras, U., Gadzo, M., Humaid, M., Shankar, P., Hatuqa, D., Stepansky, J., & Siddiqui, U. (2023). Israel-Palestine Escalation Updates: Gaza Under Bombardment. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from Al-Jazeera website: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2023/10/7/israel-palestine-escalation-live-news-barrage-of-rockets-fired-from-gaza
Wu, H. (2023). Framing As A Concept: A Literature Review On Its Development, And Application With The Example Of Content Analysis. Interdisciplinary Humanities And Communication Studies, 1(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.61173/55x0eq94
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Mar 26, 2024
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Henarni, N. H., & Surwandono, S. (2024). FRAMING HAMAS: A COMPARATIVE DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF WESTERN AND MIDDLE EASTERN MEDIA. Al-Balagh : Jurnal Dakwah Dan Komunikasi, 9(1), 31–54. https://doi.org/10.22515/albalagh.v9i1.8474
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